Interaction of Reward Seeking and Self-Regulation in the Prediction of Risk Taking: A Cross-National Test of the Dual Systems Model

Abstract

Dual systems models of adolescent risk taking posit that height ened risk taking at this age is the result of a maturational imbalance between brain systems responsible for reward processing, which mature early in adolescence, and systems responsible for cognitive control, which do not mature until early adulthood (e.g., Casey, Getz, & Galvan, 2008; Steinberg, 2008). Consequently, during middle and late adolescence, youth experience a heightened sen sitivity to reward, which impels them toward sensation seeking, before they have the mature self-regulatory capacities required to rein in impulsive behavior (Steinberg, 2008). Thus, dual systems theories postulate that the adolescent-peak in risk taking is a function of the interaction between brain systems influencing reward seeking and self-regulatory behaviors, which develop along distinct and independent trajectories. Although various terms have been used to describe the behaviors underlying these neurological systems, for the purposes of this article, we use the term reward seeking to broadly describe behaviors related to sensation seeking and reward sensitivity, and self-regulation to describe behaviors related to cognitive control and response inhibition. Numerous empirical examinations of the dual systems perspec tive exist in both the neuroscientific and psychological literatures (for a review, see Shulman et al., 2016). However, three issues have not received sufficient attention. First, few researchers have directly examined the independent, additive, and interactive con tributions of reward seeking and self-regulation to risk taking; although the brain systems that govern these processes develop independently, they are thought to function interactively (Galvan et al., 2006). Second, it is unclear how the interplay between these two systems differs across developmental periods; their relative importance for risk taking may vary as a function of age. Finally, it is unknown whether the dual systems perspective of adolescent risk taking is generalizable across cultures; although heightened risk taking in adolescence is seen around the world (World Health Organization, 2004), it is unknown whether the underlying contri butions of reward seeking and self-regulation to risky behavior are similar in different cultural contexts. The most robust findings in support of the dual systems model concern cross-sectional data on the differing developmental tra jectories of reward seeking and self-regulation (Harden & Tucker Drob, 2011; Shulman et al., 2016; Steinberg et al., 2008), as well as their underlying neurobiological processes, reward processing, and cognitive control, respectively (Casey, Jones, & Hare, 2008; Smith, Chein, & Steinberg, 2013; Spear, 2013). Both self-report (Harden & Tucker-Drob, 2011; Steinberg et al., 2008) and behav ioral indicators (Cauffman et al., 2010) of reward seeking suggest that this trait increases in early adolescence, peaks in mid- to late adolescence, and declines into adulthood. In contrast, self-report (Steinberg et al., 2008) and behavioral indicators (Albert & Stein berg, 2011; Huizinga, Dolan, & van der Molen, 2006; Luna et al.,