School of Environment and Earth Science
https://repository.maseno.ac.ke/handle/123456789/1315
2024-03-28T11:55:06ZEnvironmental Impact of Rainfall Variability in Semi-Arid Areas: A Case Study of Baringo District, Kenya
https://repository.maseno.ac.ke/handle/123456789/5045
Environmental Impact of Rainfall Variability in Semi-Arid Areas: A Case Study of Baringo District, Kenya
KHAOMA, Josephine Ngaira
Studies in climatology have revealed that the weather patterns of the world have become
very variable during the last half of the twentienth century. The causes of the variability
have identified as sunspot activity, earth's orbit, decline in the solar beam, injection of
both natural and man made aerosols in the atmosphere, depletion of the ozone layer and
albedo change due to deforestation and increased carbondioxide in the atmosphere.
The most affected weather element by the above mentioned factors is rainfall and the
.areas most affected by the sudden changes in rainfall characteristics are the Arid and
Semi-arid Lands (ASAL) of the world, which are already moisture constrained. Most
parts of Africa suffer from aridity, where for example, 83 percent of Kenya's total area is
either arid or semi-arid. .
The study generally focussed on the impact of rainfall variability on environmental
transformations in semi-arid Baringo district in Kenya. Other objectives include:
Identification of rainfall characteristics i.e intensities droughts and trends between 1960-
1995 by use of monthly and annual rainfall totals, identification of the impact of rainfall
variability impact on pastoralism, crop cultivation and the general economic status of the
people of semi-arid Baringo.
In order to achieve the stated objectives, the following hypotheses were selected for
testing:- There is no significant difference in rainfall variability between Marigat and
Nginyang, there is no significant relationship between rainfall variability and (a) size (b)
depth and (c) fish production on lake Baringo and there is no significant relationship
between rainfall variability and (a) animal loss (b) crop production in semi-arid Baringo.
Methods of data collection in this study include:- Reviewing of the available literature
related to the topic, collection of relevant documented data from weather stations,
KEMRI, Fisheries department, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock development, all
located within the study area, and Administration of structured and unstructured
questions on selected topics (pastoralism, crop cultivation, health). Techniques in
climatology such as precipitation Concentration Index (PCK), Coefficient of Variability
(CV), Relative Variability (RV) Correlation Coefficient, Student t-test and Time Series
analysis were used.
Empirical findings established that semi-arid Baringo suffers from erratic and variable
rainfall in time and space, such that, there was a significant difference in rainfall between,
Marigat and Nginyang where Nginyang was best described as arid while Marigat as
semi-arid. It was further established that Marigat experienced frequent droughts lasting
between 2-3 consecutive years, while Nginyang experienced prolonged droughts lasting
over five consecutive years leading to temporary climate change. The general rainfall
trend in the study area pointed towards drier conditions in future.
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The study also established a strong correlation between rainfall variability, lake Baringo
size and depth such that, when rainfall increases the size(surface area) and depth of the
lake increases and during droughts, the lake shrinks in size and drops in depth.
Surprisingly, there is minimal correlation between rainfall variability and fish production.
Rainfall amount has very little influence on fish production. On the other hand, it was
established that rainfall variability was responsible for a great percentage of animal loss
collapse of rainfall rainfed crop cultivation in Marigat, poor health and school enrolment
and attendance.
From the findings of the study, was concluded that rainfall variability in semi-arid
Baringo was responsible for the economic collapse, poverty and persistent starvation
among the residents. In order to alleviate some of the problems caused by rainfall
variability in the study area, a holistic approach was recommended where all the relevant
personnel must work together towards behavioural change of the residents, technical and
scientific improvement of the environment.
1999-01-01T00:00:00ZFactors influencing planning and implementation of male circumcision in HIV Prevention in Nyando District, Kenya
https://repository.maseno.ac.ke/handle/123456789/4335
Factors influencing planning and implementation of male circumcision in HIV Prevention in Nyando District, Kenya
OBURE, Alfreds F.X.O.
approximately 3,000,000 people (CBS, 2006). Compared to other ethnic groups in
Kenya, the Luo community has the highest prevalence of 21%; 18% for males and 26%
for female (Montana et al., 2007). Rural areas of Nyando, Migori and Suba districts lead
in HIVprevalence in the province (NACC 2007).
There appear to be several reasons for high HIV prevalence in Nyanza province,
in it and among its Luo-inhabited districts such as Nyando. First, Nyanza is a major
overland trade route, with several truck-stops on the interstate highway feeding Uganda,
Rwanda, Burundi and Congo. The trade route cuts through Nyando district, with a busy
stop-over in the district's headquarters at Awasi Town. Commercial and unprotected sex
with truck-drivers at these stopovers has been. blamed for the relatively high mv
prevalence among communities living along the highway (Adari, 2004). As a result, HIV
gradually migrated along sexual dyads which link urban and rural networks, leading to
rapid increases in HIV/AIDS in rural areas (Luke, 2002).
Secondly, IPAR (2004) identified poverty as another causal (as well as
consequent) factor for high HIV infections in the region. It is the leading predisposing
factor to casual sex and promiscuity. Furthermore, poverty is perpetuated by the high cost
of taking care of the medical and nutritional needs of the infected, funeral expenses, .
increased dependency from the swelling number of orphans, reduced number of hours
spent in economic activities to take care of the ill and lack of will and hopelessness.
Thirdly, the relatively high HIV prevalence among the dominant Luo ethnic group
has been associated with risky cultural practices such as ter (widow inheritance),
polygamy, and other practices that include sex before ceremonies like harvesting,
opening of new house or home, and or marriage of sons (Agot et al., 2007; Caldwell &
Caldwell, 1994; Luke, 2002; IPAR, 2004). Luke (2002), however, observed that wife
inheritance factor should be considered within the context of other socio-cultural factors
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since there are some other ethnic groups in Kenya, like the Maasai, that practice womensharing,
but have low HIV prevalence.
Fourthly, high sexual risk behaviors along the shores of Lake Victoria such as
sex-for-fish (joboya) and carefree lifestyles of the beach community, have also been
associated with high HIV infections in the region (IPAR, 2004). Beach culture is
conducive to casual and commercial sexual practices, hence playing a major role in the
spread of the scourge, not only among the Luo but in the Lake Victoria gulf in East
Africa. The peculiar characteristics of the beach community are that men have sex at
random and can change partners at leisure; and each woman at the beach must have a
husband at anyone time, to be assured of fish supplies and other favours; and in addition
condom use is low. The consequences of the beach culture are felt not only among the
immediate community but also in many neighboring hinterlands. This is because as the
beach people move to the hinterlands to visit spouses and relatives, they can)' the virus
along with them (IPAR, 2004).
Lack of circumcision has also been considered a risk factor for HIV infection
among the Luo. Unlike the great majority of others in Kenya, the Luo do not practice
traditional Me (Agot et al., 2004). Several prior studies in Kenya have shown a
significant relationship between Me and HIV risk (Auvert et al., 2001). KDHS (2003)
found that in Nyanza Province, 21 percent of men who were uncircumcised were HIV
infected, compared with 2 percent of those who were circumcised. Moreover, KAIS
(2007) reported that 13 percent of men who were uncircumcised were HIV infected,
compared with 3 percent of those who were circumcised. These evidences make an
urgent case to explore how projects to promote Me can be designed and implemented
among the Luo community.
Approximately 30% of adult men worldwide are circumcised. In SSA, about twothirds
of men are circumcised (WHO&UNAIDS, 2007a). Me is practiced by many
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communities in Kenya, largely for religious and cultural reasons (NASCOP, 2008).
Approximately 84% of Kenyan men are circumcised (KDHS, 2003). More than 90% of
men are circumcised in North Eastern, Eastern, Coast, and Central Provinces; more than
80 percent in Nairobi, Rift Valley and Western Provinces. In Nyanza, MC prevalence
overall is 46%, although there is wide variation within districts ranging from 17% to 99%
(NASCOP, 2008). Approximately 90% of Luo men are not circumcised (Buve et al.,
l 2000). In Luo-inhabited districts of Nyanza province, the few cases of MC have generally
resulted from clinical indications and religious reasons, especially among Nomiya
Church, which requires its male members to circumcise (Matson et al., 2005).
2009-01-01T00:00:00ZSustainable Delivery of Privatized Water Services by KIWASCO to the Poor in the Municipality of Kisumu- Kenya
https://repository.maseno.ac.ke/handle/123456789/4317
Sustainable Delivery of Privatized Water Services by KIWASCO to the Poor in the Municipality of Kisumu- Kenya
WAGAH, George Godwin
Access to safe water supply has been one of the top priorities in developing countries over the
past three to four decades and billions of dollars have been invested in pursuit of the goal of
"universal service" and yet the current reality is far from that goal. Local authorities in Kenya
have adopted privatization as a strategy for efficient and effective management and delivery of
water services. The poor have not come to terms with the new water policy that emphasizes
cost recovery. They view water as a basic need and human right and feel that the government
has the responsibility of ensuring that it is available, accessible, adequate, safe and affordable.
Water is widely viewed as a social and not economic good. Water utilities often serve only a
fraction of the urban population with the vast majority relying on alternative sources. The poor
households rely on vending systems and often pay vendors 2-10 times unit price paid by the
connected households. The specific objectives were to; assess the level of accessibility to water
services by urban residents; evaluate the affordability of privatized water services by the urban
poor; and analyse the quality of water consumed by urban residents. The study has used both
primary and secondary sources of data. The researcher sampled 367 from 8583 households
distributed in the four categories, namely; high income, middle income, low income planned
and low income unplanned residential estates in Municipality of Kisumu. Interviews were also
conducted with key informants inc.luding KIWASCO as well as LVSWSB officials. The data
was analyzed using ANOVA to assess the difference in the expenditure on and demand for
water within and between the estates. Correlation Analysis has also been used to assess the
degree of association between household income and water use amongst the residents, while ttest
was used to determine the level of water affordability. The study found out that the
proportion of households with access to safe water supply within a distance of 200m is 77.1 per
cent and only 65.6 per cent of the basic water requirements of the households are met. The
mean daily per capita water use is 32.92 litres compared with the WHO recommended 50l1e/d,
with the high income households using about 2.5 times more than the unplanned settlement:
households. Private in-house piped connection is the most important, yet only 19.8 per cent of
the sampled households use them as their primary source. Vast majority of the households
depend on either vendors or kiosks as their primary source· of water. Based on 5 per cent
benchmark ratio, the study revealed that 75.7 per cent of the households find the cost of water
unaffordable. The study further found out that the proportion of a household's income or
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budget spent on water service and affordability are negatively correlated and that expenditure
on water constitutes a significant household budget, just like rent, fees and food. The majority
of the households felt that, despite the good impressions of taste, smell and colour of water,
they still found it necessary to treat their water either by boiling or use of chemicals. The study
concludes that the proportion of households with access to safe water in the study area is quite
low, below even the national average and the residents have to contend with multiple sources
meet the daily water demand. The total water requirement of the households can be determined
from the data collected and KIW ASCO would have a better sense of how much water to
produce. The expenditure on water constitutes a significant household budget and based on of
5 per cent benchmark ratio, % of the residents find the cost of water unaffordable. The study
recommends that to expand access to safe water services there is need for upfront investment
on rehabilitation and extension of existing water network in addition to upgrading of treatment
plant, thus reducing the cost of maintenance and unaccounted for water and making better use
of economies of scale. New water ethics and demand-based service delivery should also be
adopted for better management and services. Surveillance tests by other bodies like NEMA,
WSB and KEBS should also be intensified through establishment of more test points and
frequent regular tests both at the end points as well as treatment plant.
2009-01-01T00:00:00ZCompliance and Enforcement of Environmental Policies on Natural Resources in Uganda: A case of South Busoga Forest Reserve
https://repository.maseno.ac.ke/handle/123456789/4248
Compliance and Enforcement of Environmental Policies on Natural Resources in Uganda: A case of South Busoga Forest Reserve
OTIENO, Alphonse Charles
Environmental policies on natural resources are as old as the history of man-kind, thus it is
common to find an array of policies in the environmental docket in most countries. Despite
the myriad of policies made and promulgated by most counties, de-legitimisation of the
policies on natural resources exists manifested in non-compliance with any of them and their
ineffective enforcement in developing countries with a bearing on the new competitive
political dispensation amongst these countries, Uganda inclusively. The natural resources
have been dished out as handouts hence their petering out, hither to government forest
reserves inclusively. This study was out to:-investigate the relationship between government
regulatory system and local communities' compliance with the Uganda Forestry Policy (UFP)
2001 in South Busoga Central Forest Reserve (SBCFR); explain the role of politicians with
enforcement of the UFP 2001 in SBCFR; and establish the community attitude and willingness
of the community living adjacent to SBCFR to comply with the UFP 200 l.This was a case study
using cross-sectional survey describing existing phenomena with respect to the following
variables, compliance, enforcement and political interference with the first two variables. It
adopted a QUAL-quan triangulation model given the objectives. The target local community
population was 7341 households where 364 households formed the sample size. A total of
344 local community respondents, thus a precision of ± 5% at a 95% level of confidence
participated from the sampled households and 31 conservationists forming the government
regulatory system participated. The instruments used were piloted and using a split-half
testing for reliability where a coefficient of 0.83 was attained. Document analysis,
observations and interviews were transcribed in the text before analysis and interpretations.
The research revealed that there was a moderate correlation between government regulatory
system and the local community's compliance with the UFP 2001 at r = 0.42.The chi statistic
values showed that none of the elements of the government regulatory system was <9.21 at
0.01 df = 2 thus statistically insignificant. It was also found that the elements of government
regulatory system were not properly coordinated despite being loosely under NEMA. The
SWOT analysis showed that strengths were higher than weakness; where insufficient power
and corruption usurped the strengths of NFA in its enforcement. It was also found that local
politicians usurped both the powers and authority of NFA in either enforcement of UFP 2001,
hence, rendering NFA Officials incompetent. There was a strong relationship at r = 0.74
between the politicians' interference and enforcement of forestry policy at SBCFR. The local
communities were positive towards compliance at Likert Scale rate 360 willing to stop, 305
very much willing to comply with the policy, while 320 some what willing. De-legitimization
of forestry policy had a strong bearing on political will to either comply with or-enforce it.
This has openly led to encroachment of the forest reserves. To avoid de-legitimization of the
UFP 2001, there is a need to have a positive political will. The Lead Agencies in the environment
docket should be have internal checks and be assertive in management. The policy should be
reviewed to include politicians' role. Agro-forestry strategy skewed towards soil fertilization
would detach the local community from the forest reserve.
2012-01-01T00:00:00ZAnalysis of Community Participation in the'. Project Cycle Management of a forestation activities in River Nyando Basin, Kenya
https://repository.maseno.ac.ke/handle/123456789/4197
Analysis of Community Participation in the'. Project Cycle Management of a forestation activities in River Nyando Basin, Kenya
MARAGA, James Nyanchoka
Past studies indicate that limited data on community participation In afforestation projects
constitutes a major constraint to rural development, frequently, leading to incorrect assessment of
the forestry sector needs of rural people. The objective of this study WMG to analyze community
participation in the project cycle management of afforestation activities in River Nyando basin.
The basin continues to suffer from environmental de~ation, despite having one of the highest
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concentrations of Non-Governmental Organizations involved in environmental conservation
efforts. The key hypothesis of the study was that local communities' participation in afforestation
projects' activities was not determined by benefits obtained by the communities from the
afforestation projects. Data was collected from 150 households selected from a study population
of 1,928 households using systematic sampling technique. Key results from the study indicated
that two factors largely determined community participation in the afforestation projects.
Community participation was significantly determined by the benefits that the communities
obtained from the projects (X2 a 0.05 = 0.000); implying {hat the communities were dependent
on the projects, which is not suitable for sustainability of afforestation activities. Community
participation was also determined by environmental factors, especially, soil erosion (X2 a 0.05 =
0.001); implying that soil erosion was one of the major environmental problems in the study
area. The hypothesis that communities' participation in afforestation projects' activities was not
determined by benefits obtained by the communities from the projects was, therefore, rejected.
The study concluded that community participation in the afforestation projects was largely
determined by the benefits that the beneficiaries obtained from the projects. The study, therefore,
recommended that afforestation projects should involve beneficiaries in 'cost-sharing' of
afforestation development ventures so as to, not only ensure sustainability of afforestation
activities but also avoid the problem of dependency by beneficiaries.
2011-01-01T00:00:00ZSocio-Economic Determinants of Woodfuel Extraction and Its Effects on Vegetation Cover of Gazetted Forests Within Koibatek Forests Zone, Kenya
https://repository.maseno.ac.ke/handle/123456789/3993
Socio-Economic Determinants of Woodfuel Extraction and Its Effects on Vegetation Cover of Gazetted Forests Within Koibatek Forests Zone, Kenya
RONO, Kipng'etich Keith
Globally, about 2 billion people extract and use woodfuel in the form of firewood and charcoal. Africa‟s per capita woodfuel consumption is 0.89 m3 per year accounting for 67% of the total energy while Kenya‟s woodfuel consumption accounts for 68% of the total energy. Despite the importance of woodfuel in Kenya‟s economy, information on socio-economic determinants of woodfuel extraction and its effects on vegetation cover of gazetted forests is scarce. Therefore, the study purposed to assess the socio-economic determinants of woodfuel extraction and its effects on vegetation cover of gazetted forests within Koibatek Zone, Kenya. The specific objectives were to: establish the influence of socio-economic determinants on woodfuel extraction within gazetted forests, assess the relationship between income earned from sale of woodfuel on the volume extracted; analyze the influence proximity of extractors to forests on the number of firewood headloads extracted; determine the relationship between volume of woodfuel extracted and percent gazetted-forest cover change and evaluate the influence of mechanisms for enforcing existing legislations on woodfuel extraction within gazetted forests from 2006 to 2014. A cross-sectional descriptive research design was adopted. Purposive sampling was used to select all 8 gazetted forests blocks and the 8 forest officers while stratified random sampling was used to select 384 woodfuel extractors within the Zone. Primary sources of data included: scrutiny of registers for licenses of woodfuel extraction; administration of questionnaires to 384 woodfuel extractors, key informant interviews with Ecosystem Conservator and 8 forests officers; 8 Focused Group Discussions and Classification and Interpretation of satellite images. Secondary data was collected by review of policy documents, office files and journals. Data analysis utilized Pearson Chi-Square tests, Simple Linear Regression and descriptive statistics such as percentages and crosstabs. Qualitative data were arranged, coded and discussed. The study established that gender was a significant socio-economic determinants of woodfuel extraction from gazetted forests (X2(2) =33.113, p<0.005). Age (X2(10) =15.759, p>0.005), level of education (X2(10) 8.439, p>0.005) and livelihood support when unemployed X2(10) = 11.207, p>0.005) were not significant socio-economic determinants of woodfuel extraction within gazetted forests. Income earned from sale of woodfuel had significant (p<0.05) relationship with volume of woodfuel extracted within gazetted forests since about 53.1% variation in volume of woodfuel extracted can be explained by income from sales (R2=0.531). Proximity to forests had positive but not significant influence on the number of firewood headloads extracted within gazetted forests (R2=0.002, P>0.05). Thus, 0.2% variation in firewood headloads can be attributed to proximity to gazetted forests. The volume of woodfuel extracted within gazetted forests had significant negative relationship with percentage forest cover change (R2=0.001, b= -0.023, t=- 0.04, p<0.05). The estimated 260,745.59m3 of woodfuel extracted within gazetted forests from 2006-2014 equated to 8.24% (3,902.5 hectares) loss in forest cover. The study also established that enforcement of existing legislations had significant (p<0.05) influence on woodfuel extraction within gazetted forests. It can be concluded that volume of woodfuel extracted was determined by gender and sale of woodfuel extracted. The woodfuel extracted within gazetted forests leads to significant change in cover of these forests. It is recommended that woodfuel extractors be sensitized on woodfuel extraction legislations and empowered with knowledge of sustainable forest management and agro-forestry. In addition, surveillance of gazetted forests be enhanced to curb illegal activities such as charcoal burning. The results are useful to energy and forest policy makers in developing policy strategies for sustainable extraction of woodfuel.
2020-01-01T00:00:00ZSimulation of Abstractions for Water Allocation Planning In Sosiani Sub-Catchment in Nzoia River Basin Kenya
https://repository.maseno.ac.ke/handle/123456789/3883
Simulation of Abstractions for Water Allocation Planning In Sosiani Sub-Catchment in Nzoia River Basin Kenya
MASIKA Denis Mutama
Anthropogenic activities reduce availability of water resources by nature of,use, which alter flow
regimes within surface water systems. In Sosiani catchment, information. on impact of the
abstraction on river flow, security of supply and reserve flow enforcement at a hydrologically
. daily timescale is scanty. However, water allocation hence abstraction continues to be carried out
albeit without adequate knowledge of the spatio-temporal availability status of the resource in
the catchment. This study evaluated the potential effects of surface water abstraction on flow
regimes by comparing abstraction to streamflow on a daily basis in Sosiani catchment. The study
aimed to simulate abstractions for water allocation planning in Sosiani catchment. Specific
objectives of the study were to determine the water balance for Sosiani catchment in Nzoia River
basin; simulate water abstraction in Sosiani catchment based on current water uses and to
examine various water abstraction scenarios for effective water allocation and planning. A mix
of empirical cross-sectional descriptive, experimental and evaluation research designs were
adopted in the study. Purposive survey sampling technique was employed targeting all 124
surface water abstractors. A structured questionnaire was administered to abstractors to gather
qualitative and quantitative primary data on water abstraction in the catchment. Hydrological and
meteorological data was obtained from WRA and KMD respectively. HEC HMS SMA model
was used to analyze water balance in Ellegirini, Endoroto and Sosiani Kapsaos sub-catchments
in Sosiani catchment. Modified surface water balance method was used to simulate water
abstraction while Water Evaluation and Planning System (WEAP) model was used to evaluate
various scenarios indicating future water demands based on current water allocation practice.
Falkenmark, IWMI and UN water scarcity indicators were used to assess the water stress levels.
Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient and coefficient of determination were used to assess performance of
HEC HMS model. The HEC HMS model well simulated total flow volumes as estimated residue
in percentage of total observed flow was 0.2%, 14.05% and 27% for Endoroto, Ellegirini and·
Sosiani Kapsaos sub-catchments respectively. Model validation results yielded 6% - 17% of the
simulated flows as given by residual in percentage of total observed discharge and Nash
Sachliffe that ranged from 58% to 74%. This depicted a satisfactory representation of
hydrological characteristics of Sosiani. The current water withdrawal relative to available water
is low «10%) as "depicted by 8.35%, 2.29% and 4.53% in Sosiani Kapsaos, Ellegirini and
Endoroto sub-catchments in that order. This suggests thatthe catchment is not vulnerable to water
scarcity. A projected 3.3% population growth by 2030 will increase water abstraction by 6.6%-
29.1%. By 2030, moderate water scarcity is expected in Endoroto and Sosiani Kapsaos subcatchments
while little or no scarcity of water is expected in Ellegirini sub-catchment based on
water withdrawal with respect to available water. A projected 10% increment in water
withdrawal by 2030 indicates that Sosiani Kapsaos sub-catchment will have a deficit of 6%-
103% by volume in December, January, February and March; 6%-61% deficit in November and
December in Endoroto sub-catchment while Ellegirini sub-catchment will experience no water
deficits. The available flows in Sosiani catchment can adequately meet current net water
demand/abstraction. However, enforcement of the reserve flow reduces the available flow
especially during dry seasons to cause water deficits. These results are useful for assessing
sustainability of the supply source to meet current and future water demands and for planning
and sustainable management of the resource.
2018-01-01T00:00:00Z