School of Environment and Earth Science

Environmental Impact of Rainfall Variability in Semi-Arid Areas: A Case Study of Baringo District, Kenya

2022-03-14T09:13:18Z

Environmental Impact of Rainfall Variability in Semi-Arid Areas: A Case Study of Baringo District, Kenya KHAOMA, Josephine Ngaira Studies in climatology have revealed that the weather patterns of the world have become very variable during the last half of the twentienth century. The causes of the variability have identified as sunspot activity, earth's orbit, decline in the solar beam, injection of both natural and man made aerosols in the atmosphere, depletion of the ozone layer and albedo change due to deforestation and increased carbondioxide in the atmosphere. The most affected weather element by the above mentioned factors is rainfall and the .areas most affected by the sudden changes in rainfall characteristics are the Arid and Semi-arid Lands (ASAL) of the world, which are already moisture constrained. Most parts of Africa suffer from aridity, where for example, 83 percent of Kenya's total area is either arid or semi-arid. . The study generally focussed on the impact of rainfall variability on environmental transformations in semi-arid Baringo district in Kenya. Other objectives include: Identification of rainfall characteristics i.e intensities droughts and trends between 1960- 1995 by use of monthly and annual rainfall totals, identification of the impact of rainfall variability impact on pastoralism, crop cultivation and the general economic status of the people of semi-arid Baringo. In order to achieve the stated objectives, the following hypotheses were selected for testing:- There is no significant difference in rainfall variability between Marigat and Nginyang, there is no significant relationship between rainfall variability and (a) size (b) depth and (c) fish production on lake Baringo and there is no significant relationship between rainfall variability and (a) animal loss (b) crop production in semi-arid Baringo. Methods of data collection in this study include:- Reviewing of the available literature related to the topic, collection of relevant documented data from weather stations, KEMRI, Fisheries department, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock development, all located within the study area, and Administration of structured and unstructured questions on selected topics (pastoralism, crop cultivation, health). Techniques in climatology such as precipitation Concentration Index (PCK), Coefficient of Variability (CV), Relative Variability (RV) Correlation Coefficient, Student t-test and Time Series analysis were used. Empirical findings established that semi-arid Baringo suffers from erratic and variable rainfall in time and space, such that, there was a significant difference in rainfall between, Marigat and Nginyang where Nginyang was best described as arid while Marigat as semi-arid. It was further established that Marigat experienced frequent droughts lasting between 2-3 consecutive years, while Nginyang experienced prolonged droughts lasting over five consecutive years leading to temporary climate change. The general rainfall trend in the study area pointed towards drier conditions in future. / '\ \ IV The study also established a strong correlation between rainfall variability, lake Baringo size and depth such that, when rainfall increases the size(surface area) and depth of the lake increases and during droughts, the lake shrinks in size and drops in depth. Surprisingly, there is minimal correlation between rainfall variability and fish production. Rainfall amount has very little influence on fish production. On the other hand, it was established that rainfall variability was responsible for a great percentage of animal loss collapse of rainfall rainfed crop cultivation in Marigat, poor health and school enrolment and attendance. From the findings of the study, was concluded that rainfall variability in semi-arid Baringo was responsible for the economic collapse, poverty and persistent starvation among the residents. In order to alleviate some of the problems caused by rainfall variability in the study area, a holistic approach was recommended where all the relevant personnel must work together towards behavioural change of the residents, technical and scientific improvement of the environment.

Factors influencing planning and implementation of male circumcision in HIV Prevention in Nyando District, Kenya

2021-11-09T08:29:46Z

Factors influencing planning and implementation of male circumcision in HIV Prevention in Nyando District, Kenya OBURE, Alfreds F.X.O. approximately 3,000,000 people (CBS, 2006). Compared to other ethnic groups in Kenya, the Luo community has the highest prevalence of 21%; 18% for males and 26% for female (Montana et al., 2007). Rural areas of Nyando, Migori and Suba districts lead in HIVprevalence in the province (NACC 2007). There appear to be several reasons for high HIV prevalence in Nyanza province, in it and among its Luo-inhabited districts such as Nyando. First, Nyanza is a major overland trade route, with several truck-stops on the interstate highway feeding Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and Congo. The trade route cuts through Nyando district, with a busy stop-over in the district's headquarters at Awasi Town. Commercial and unprotected sex with truck-drivers at these stopovers has been. blamed for the relatively high mv prevalence among communities living along the highway (Adari, 2004). As a result, HIV gradually migrated along sexual dyads which link urban and rural networks, leading to rapid increases in HIV/AIDS in rural areas (Luke, 2002). Secondly, IPAR (2004) identified poverty as another causal (as well as consequent) factor for high HIV infections in the region. It is the leading predisposing factor to casual sex and promiscuity. Furthermore, poverty is perpetuated by the high cost of taking care of the medical and nutritional needs of the infected, funeral expenses, . increased dependency from the swelling number of orphans, reduced number of hours spent in economic activities to take care of the ill and lack of will and hopelessness. Thirdly, the relatively high HIV prevalence among the dominant Luo ethnic group has been associated with risky cultural practices such as ter (widow inheritance), polygamy, and other practices that include sex before ceremonies like harvesting, opening of new house or home, and or marriage of sons (Agot et al., 2007; Caldwell & Caldwell, 1994; Luke, 2002; IPAR, 2004). Luke (2002), however, observed that wife inheritance factor should be considered within the context of other socio-cultural factors 3 since there are some other ethnic groups in Kenya, like the Maasai, that practice womensharing, but have low HIV prevalence. Fourthly, high sexual risk behaviors along the shores of Lake Victoria such as sex-for-fish (joboya) and carefree lifestyles of the beach community, have also been associated with high HIV infections in the region (IPAR, 2004). Beach culture is conducive to casual and commercial sexual practices, hence playing a major role in the spread of the scourge, not only among the Luo but in the Lake Victoria gulf in East Africa. The peculiar characteristics of the beach community are that men have sex at random and can change partners at leisure; and each woman at the beach must have a husband at anyone time, to be assured of fish supplies and other favours; and in addition condom use is low. The consequences of the beach culture are felt not only among the immediate community but also in many neighboring hinterlands. This is because as the beach people move to the hinterlands to visit spouses and relatives, they can)' the virus along with them (IPAR, 2004). Lack of circumcision has also been considered a risk factor for HIV infection among the Luo. Unlike the great majority of others in Kenya, the Luo do not practice traditional Me (Agot et al., 2004). Several prior studies in Kenya have shown a significant relationship between Me and HIV risk (Auvert et al., 2001). KDHS (2003) found that in Nyanza Province, 21 percent of men who were uncircumcised were HIV infected, compared with 2 percent of those who were circumcised. Moreover, KAIS (2007) reported that 13 percent of men who were uncircumcised were HIV infected, compared with 3 percent of those who were circumcised. These evidences make an urgent case to explore how projects to promote Me can be designed and implemented among the Luo community. Approximately 30% of adult men worldwide are circumcised. In SSA, about twothirds of men are circumcised (WHO&UNAIDS, 2007a). Me is practiced by many 4 communities in Kenya, largely for religious and cultural reasons (NASCOP, 2008). Approximately 84% of Kenyan men are circumcised (KDHS, 2003). More than 90% of men are circumcised in North Eastern, Eastern, Coast, and Central Provinces; more than 80 percent in Nairobi, Rift Valley and Western Provinces. In Nyanza, MC prevalence overall is 46%, although there is wide variation within districts ranging from 17% to 99% (NASCOP, 2008). Approximately 90% of Luo men are not circumcised (Buve et al., l 2000). In Luo-inhabited districts of Nyanza province, the few cases of MC have generally resulted from clinical indications and religious reasons, especially among Nomiya Church, which requires its male members to circumcise (Matson et al., 2005).

Sustainable Delivery of Privatized Water Services by KIWASCO to the Poor in the Municipality of Kisumu- Kenya

2021-11-04T09:41:46Z

Sustainable Delivery of Privatized Water Services by KIWASCO to the Poor in the Municipality of Kisumu- Kenya WAGAH, George Godwin Access to safe water supply has been one of the top priorities in developing countries over the past three to four decades and billions of dollars have been invested in pursuit of the goal of "universal service" and yet the current reality is far from that goal. Local authorities in Kenya have adopted privatization as a strategy for efficient and effective management and delivery of water services. The poor have not come to terms with the new water policy that emphasizes cost recovery. They view water as a basic need and human right and feel that the government has the responsibility of ensuring that it is available, accessible, adequate, safe and affordable. Water is widely viewed as a social and not economic good. Water utilities often serve only a fraction of the urban population with the vast majority relying on alternative sources. The poor households rely on vending systems and often pay vendors 2-10 times unit price paid by the connected households. The specific objectives were to; assess the level of accessibility to water services by urban residents; evaluate the affordability of privatized water services by the urban poor; and analyse the quality of water consumed by urban residents. The study has used both primary and secondary sources of data. The researcher sampled 367 from 8583 households distributed in the four categories, namely; high income, middle income, low income planned and low income unplanned residential estates in Municipality of Kisumu. Interviews were also conducted with key informants inc.luding KIWASCO as well as LVSWSB officials. The data was analyzed using ANOVA to assess the difference in the expenditure on and demand for water within and between the estates. Correlation Analysis has also been used to assess the degree of association between household income and water use amongst the residents, while ttest was used to determine the level of water affordability. The study found out that the proportion of households with access to safe water supply within a distance of 200m is 77.1 per cent and only 65.6 per cent of the basic water requirements of the households are met. The mean daily per capita water use is 32.92 litres compared with the WHO recommended 50l1e/d, with the high income households using about 2.5 times more than the unplanned settlement: households. Private in-house piped connection is the most important, yet only 19.8 per cent of the sampled households use them as their primary source. Vast majority of the households depend on either vendors or kiosks as their primary source· of water. Based on 5 per cent benchmark ratio, the study revealed that 75.7 per cent of the households find the cost of water unaffordable. The study further found out that the proportion of a household's income or iv budget spent on water service and affordability are negatively correlated and that expenditure on water constitutes a significant household budget, just like rent, fees and food. The majority of the households felt that, despite the good impressions of taste, smell and colour of water, they still found it necessary to treat their water either by boiling or use of chemicals. The study concludes that the proportion of households with access to safe water in the study area is quite low, below even the national average and the residents have to contend with multiple sources meet the daily water demand. The total water requirement of the households can be determined from the data collected and KIW ASCO would have a better sense of how much water to produce. The expenditure on water constitutes a significant household budget and based on of 5 per cent benchmark ratio, % of the residents find the cost of water unaffordable. The study recommends that to expand access to safe water services there is need for upfront investment on rehabilitation and extension of existing water network in addition to upgrading of treatment plant, thus reducing the cost of maintenance and unaccounted for water and making better use of economies of scale. New water ethics and demand-based service delivery should also be adopted for better management and services. Surveillance tests by other bodies like NEMA, WSB and KEBS should also be intensified through establishment of more test points and frequent regular tests both at the end points as well as treatment plant.

Compliance and Enforcement of Environmental Policies on Natural Resources in Uganda: A case of South Busoga Forest Reserve

2021-07-30T08:15:10Z

Compliance and Enforcement of Environmental Policies on Natural Resources in Uganda: A case of South Busoga Forest Reserve OTIENO, Alphonse Charles Environmental policies on natural resources are as old as the history of man-kind, thus it is common to find an array of policies in the environmental docket in most countries. Despite the myriad of policies made and promulgated by most counties, de-legitimisation of the policies on natural resources exists manifested in non-compliance with any of them and their ineffective enforcement in developing countries with a bearing on the new competitive political dispensation amongst these countries, Uganda inclusively. The natural resources have been dished out as handouts hence their petering out, hither to government forest reserves inclusively. This study was out to:-investigate the relationship between government regulatory system and local communities' compliance with the Uganda Forestry Policy (UFP) 2001 in South Busoga Central Forest Reserve (SBCFR); explain the role of politicians with enforcement of the UFP 2001 in SBCFR; and establish the community attitude and willingness of the community living adjacent to SBCFR to comply with the UFP 200 l.This was a case study using cross-sectional survey describing existing phenomena with respect to the following variables, compliance, enforcement and political interference with the first two variables. It adopted a QUAL-quan triangulation model given the objectives. The target local community population was 7341 households where 364 households formed the sample size. A total of 344 local community respondents, thus a precision of ± 5% at a 95% level of confidence participated from the sampled households and 31 conservationists forming the government regulatory system participated. The instruments used were piloted and using a split-half testing for reliability where a coefficient of 0.83 was attained. Document analysis, observations and interviews were transcribed in the text before analysis and interpretations. The research revealed that there was a moderate correlation between government regulatory system and the local community's compliance with the UFP 2001 at r = 0.42.The chi statistic values showed that none of the elements of the government regulatory system was <9.21 at 0.01 df = 2 thus statistically insignificant. It was also found that the elements of government regulatory system were not properly coordinated despite being loosely under NEMA. The SWOT analysis showed that strengths were higher than weakness; where insufficient power and corruption usurped the strengths of NFA in its enforcement. It was also found that local politicians usurped both the powers and authority of NFA in either enforcement of UFP 2001, hence, rendering NFA Officials incompetent. There was a strong relationship at r = 0.74 between the politicians' interference and enforcement of forestry policy at SBCFR. The local communities were positive towards compliance at Likert Scale rate 360 willing to stop, 305 very much willing to comply with the policy, while 320 some what willing. De-legitimization of forestry policy had a strong bearing on political will to either comply with or-enforce it. This has openly led to encroachment of the forest reserves. To avoid de-legitimization of the UFP 2001, there is a need to have a positive political will. The Lead Agencies in the environment docket should be have internal checks and be assertive in management. The policy should be reviewed to include politicians' role. Agro-forestry strategy skewed towards soil fertilization would detach the local community from the forest reserve.

Analysis of Community Participation in the'. Project Cycle Management of a forestation activities in River Nyando Basin, Kenya

2021-07-28T07:29:21Z

Analysis of Community Participation in the'. Project Cycle Management of a forestation activities in River Nyando Basin, Kenya MARAGA, James Nyanchoka Past studies indicate that limited data on community participation In afforestation projects constitutes a major constraint to rural development, frequently, leading to incorrect assessment of the forestry sector needs of rural people. The objective of this study WMG to analyze community participation in the project cycle management of afforestation activities in River Nyando basin. The basin continues to suffer from environmental de~ation, despite having one of the highest ~ concentrations of Non-Governmental Organizations involved in environmental conservation efforts. The key hypothesis of the study was that local communities' participation in afforestation projects' activities was not determined by benefits obtained by the communities from the afforestation projects. Data was collected from 150 households selected from a study population of 1,928 households using systematic sampling technique. Key results from the study indicated that two factors largely determined community participation in the afforestation projects. Community participation was significantly determined by the benefits that the communities obtained from the projects (X2 a 0.05 = 0.000); implying {hat the communities were dependent on the projects, which is not suitable for sustainability of afforestation activities. Community participation was also determined by environmental factors, especially, soil erosion (X2 a 0.05 = 0.001); implying that soil erosion was one of the major environmental problems in the study area. The hypothesis that communities' participation in afforestation projects' activities was not determined by benefits obtained by the communities from the projects was, therefore, rejected. The study concluded that community participation in the afforestation projects was largely determined by the benefits that the beneficiaries obtained from the projects. The study, therefore, recommended that afforestation projects should involve beneficiaries in 'cost-sharing' of afforestation development ventures so as to, not only ensure sustainability of afforestation activities but also avoid the problem of dependency by beneficiaries.

Socio-Economic Determinants of Woodfuel Extraction and Its Effects on Vegetation Cover of Gazetted Forests Within Koibatek Forests Zone, Kenya

2021-06-21T07:42:56Z

Socio-Economic Determinants of Woodfuel Extraction and Its Effects on Vegetation Cover of Gazetted Forests Within Koibatek Forests Zone, Kenya RONO, Kipng'etich Keith Globally, about 2 billion people extract and use woodfuel in the form of firewood and charcoal. Africa‟s per capita woodfuel consumption is 0.89 m3 per year accounting for 67% of the total energy while Kenya‟s woodfuel consumption accounts for 68% of the total energy. Despite the importance of woodfuel in Kenya‟s economy, information on socio-economic determinants of woodfuel extraction and its effects on vegetation cover of gazetted forests is scarce. Therefore, the study purposed to assess the socio-economic determinants of woodfuel extraction and its effects on vegetation cover of gazetted forests within Koibatek Zone, Kenya. The specific objectives were to: establish the influence of socio-economic determinants on woodfuel extraction within gazetted forests, assess the relationship between income earned from sale of woodfuel on the volume extracted; analyze the influence proximity of extractors to forests on the number of firewood headloads extracted; determine the relationship between volume of woodfuel extracted and percent gazetted-forest cover change and evaluate the influence of mechanisms for enforcing existing legislations on woodfuel extraction within gazetted forests from 2006 to 2014. A cross-sectional descriptive research design was adopted. Purposive sampling was used to select all 8 gazetted forests blocks and the 8 forest officers while stratified random sampling was used to select 384 woodfuel extractors within the Zone. Primary sources of data included: scrutiny of registers for licenses of woodfuel extraction; administration of questionnaires to 384 woodfuel extractors, key informant interviews with Ecosystem Conservator and 8 forests officers; 8 Focused Group Discussions and Classification and Interpretation of satellite images. Secondary data was collected by review of policy documents, office files and journals. Data analysis utilized Pearson Chi-Square tests, Simple Linear Regression and descriptive statistics such as percentages and crosstabs. Qualitative data were arranged, coded and discussed. The study established that gender was a significant socio-economic determinants of woodfuel extraction from gazetted forests (X2(2) =33.113, p<0.005). Age (X2(10) =15.759, p>0.005), level of education (X2(10) 8.439, p>0.005) and livelihood support when unemployed X2(10) = 11.207, p>0.005) were not significant socio-economic determinants of woodfuel extraction within gazetted forests. Income earned from sale of woodfuel had significant (p<0.05) relationship with volume of woodfuel extracted within gazetted forests since about 53.1% variation in volume of woodfuel extracted can be explained by income from sales (R2=0.531). Proximity to forests had positive but not significant influence on the number of firewood headloads extracted within gazetted forests (R2=0.002, P>0.05). Thus, 0.2% variation in firewood headloads can be attributed to proximity to gazetted forests. The volume of woodfuel extracted within gazetted forests had significant negative relationship with percentage forest cover change (R2=0.001, b= -0.023, t=- 0.04, p<0.05). The estimated 260,745.59m3 of woodfuel extracted within gazetted forests from 2006-2014 equated to 8.24% (3,902.5 hectares) loss in forest cover. The study also established that enforcement of existing legislations had significant (p<0.05) influence on woodfuel extraction within gazetted forests. It can be concluded that volume of woodfuel extracted was determined by gender and sale of woodfuel extracted. The woodfuel extracted within gazetted forests leads to significant change in cover of these forests. It is recommended that woodfuel extractors be sensitized on woodfuel extraction legislations and empowered with knowledge of sustainable forest management and agro-forestry. In addition, surveillance of gazetted forests be enhanced to curb illegal activities such as charcoal burning. The results are useful to energy and forest policy makers in developing policy strategies for sustainable extraction of woodfuel.

Simulation of Abstractions for Water Allocation Planning In Sosiani Sub-Catchment in Nzoia River Basin Kenya

2021-05-28T08:02:53Z

Simulation of Abstractions for Water Allocation Planning In Sosiani Sub-Catchment in Nzoia River Basin Kenya MASIKA Denis Mutama Anthropogenic activities reduce availability of water resources by nature of,use, which alter flow regimes within surface water systems. In Sosiani catchment, information. on impact of the abstraction on river flow, security of supply and reserve flow enforcement at a hydrologically . daily timescale is scanty. However, water allocation hence abstraction continues to be carried out albeit without adequate knowledge of the spatio-temporal availability status of the resource in the catchment. This study evaluated the potential effects of surface water abstraction on flow regimes by comparing abstraction to streamflow on a daily basis in Sosiani catchment. The study aimed to simulate abstractions for water allocation planning in Sosiani catchment. Specific objectives of the study were to determine the water balance for Sosiani catchment in Nzoia River basin; simulate water abstraction in Sosiani catchment based on current water uses and to examine various water abstraction scenarios for effective water allocation and planning. A mix of empirical cross-sectional descriptive, experimental and evaluation research designs were adopted in the study. Purposive survey sampling technique was employed targeting all 124 surface water abstractors. A structured questionnaire was administered to abstractors to gather qualitative and quantitative primary data on water abstraction in the catchment. Hydrological and meteorological data was obtained from WRA and KMD respectively. HEC HMS SMA model was used to analyze water balance in Ellegirini, Endoroto and Sosiani Kapsaos sub-catchments in Sosiani catchment. Modified surface water balance method was used to simulate water abstraction while Water Evaluation and Planning System (WEAP) model was used to evaluate various scenarios indicating future water demands based on current water allocation practice. Falkenmark, IWMI and UN water scarcity indicators were used to assess the water stress levels. Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient and coefficient of determination were used to assess performance of HEC HMS model. The HEC HMS model well simulated total flow volumes as estimated residue in percentage of total observed flow was 0.2%, 14.05% and 27% for Endoroto, Ellegirini and· Sosiani Kapsaos sub-catchments respectively. Model validation results yielded 6% - 17% of the simulated flows as given by residual in percentage of total observed discharge and Nash Sachliffe that ranged from 58% to 74%. This depicted a satisfactory representation of hydrological characteristics of Sosiani. The current water withdrawal relative to available water is low «10%) as "depicted by 8.35%, 2.29% and 4.53% in Sosiani Kapsaos, Ellegirini and Endoroto sub-catchments in that order. This suggests thatthe catchment is not vulnerable to water scarcity. A projected 3.3% population growth by 2030 will increase water abstraction by 6.6%- 29.1%. By 2030, moderate water scarcity is expected in Endoroto and Sosiani Kapsaos subcatchments while little or no scarcity of water is expected in Ellegirini sub-catchment based on water withdrawal with respect to available water. A projected 10% increment in water withdrawal by 2030 indicates that Sosiani Kapsaos sub-catchment will have a deficit of 6%- 103% by volume in December, January, February and March; 6%-61% deficit in November and December in Endoroto sub-catchment while Ellegirini sub-catchment will experience no water deficits. The available flows in Sosiani catchment can adequately meet current net water demand/abstraction. However, enforcement of the reserve flow reduces the available flow especially during dry seasons to cause water deficits. These results are useful for assessing sustainability of the supply source to meet current and future water demands and for planning and sustainable management of the resource.